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Apple Sauce

Apple sauce

Applesauce (or apple sauce) is made from stewed and mashed apples, sweetened to taste with sugar or high fructose corn syrup. It can use peeled or unpeeled apples and a variety of spices or additives like cinnamon. Applesauce can be fine or coarse textured, even to including large chunks of apple. It is easily produced at home, and commercial versions are readily available in the supermarket as a common food or as a snack for children. Unsweetened applesauce is a good food for babies. It is sometimes recommended to combat diarrhea.

Recipe from the 1881 Household Cyclopedia

Pare and core tart apples, cut them in slices, rinse and put them in an earthern stewpan, set them on the fire, do not stir them until they burst and are done: mash them with a spoon, and when perfectly cool sweeten with white sugar to taste.

External links -- Applesauce Recipes


- [http://www.globalgourmet.com/food/egg/egg1296/appsauce.html Global Gourment]
- [http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,1977,FOOD_9936_9470,00.html Food Network - 10 Minute Apple Sauce]
- [http://www.freerecipe.org/Side_Dishes/Fruit/Apples/AppleSauce_bahgd.htm Apple Sauce Recipe at LoveToKnow Recipes]
- [http://www.elise.com/recipes/archives/000102applesauce.php Simply Recipes: Applesauce Recipe]
- [http://www.pickyourown.org/applesauce.htm How to make applesauce (directions, recipe, with photos)] Category:Sauces Category:Apple products ja:アップルソース

Apple (fruit)

The apple is a tree and its pomaceous fruit, of species Malus domestica in the family Rosaceae, and is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits. It is a small deciduous tree reaching 5-12 m tall, with a broad, often densely twiggy crown. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple oval with an acute tip and serrated margin, slightly downy below, 5-12 cm long and 3-6 cm broad on a 2-5 cm petiole. The flowers are produced in spring with the leaves, white, usually tinged pink at first, 2.5-3.5 cm diameter, with five petals. The fruit matures in the autumn, and is typically 5-8 cm diameter (rarely up to 15 cm).
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flower

Botanical origins

flower]] The wild ancestor of Malus domestica is Malus sieversii. It has no common name in English, but is known where it is native as "alma"; in fact, the city where it is thought to originate is called Alma-Ata, or "father of the apples". This tree is still found wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China. Some individual M. sieversii, planted by the US government at a research facility recently, resist many diseases and pests that affect domestic apples, and research with it to develop new disease-resistant apples is continuing. Other species that were previously thought to have made contributions to the genome of the domestic apples are Malus baccata and Malus sylvestris, but there is no hard evidence for this in older apple cultivars. These and other Malus species have been used in some recent breeding programmes to develop apples suitable for growing in climates unsuitable for M. domestica, mainly for increased cold tolerance. Apples have been a very important food in all cooler climates, and it was probably the earliest tree to be cultivated. To a greater degree than other tree fruit, except possibly citrus, apples store for months while still retaining much of their nutritive value. Winter apples, picked in late autumn and stored just above freezing have been an important food in Asia and Europe for millennia, as well as in Argentina and in the United States since the arrival of Europeans. The word apple comes from the Old English word aeppel which was used to refer to any round object. This word in turn comes from the Latin word abella, which is the name of a town in Campania. The scientific name malus, on the other hand, comes from the actual Latin word for apple.

Apple cultivars

:See List of Apple cultivars for a listing List of Apple cultivars There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples. Different cultivars are available for temperate and subtropical climates. Apples do not flower in tropical climates because they have a chilling requirement. Commercially-popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desired qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colourful skin, absence of russeting, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, typical 'Red Delicious' apple shape, long stem (to allow pesticides to penetrate the top of the fruit), and popular flavour. Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and have a variety of textures and colours. Many of them have excellent flavour (often better than most modern cultivars), but may have other problems which make them commercially unviable, such as low yield, liability to disease, or poor tolerance for storage or transport. A few old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been kept alive by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and locally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance are out there to discover; apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction. pesticide Although most cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), some are cultivated specifically for cooking (cooking apples) or producing cider. Cider apples are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavour that dessert apples cannot. Modern apples are, as a rule, sweeter than older cultivars. Most North Americans and Europeans favour sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following. Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavour are popular in Asia and especially India. Tastes in apples vary from one person to another and have changed over time. As an example, the U.S. state of Washington made its reputation for apple growing on Red Delicious. In recent years, many apple connoisseurs have come to regard Red Delicious as inferior to cultivars such as Fuji and Gala due to the merely mild flavour and insufficiently firm texture of the Red Delicious.

Growing apples

Apple breeding

Washington Washington Like most perennial fruits, apples are ordinarily propagated asexually by grafting. Seedling apples are different from their parents, sometimes radically. Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics. The words seedling, pippin, and kernel in the name of an apple cultivar suggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form bud sports (mutations on a single branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars. Some breeders have crossed ordinary apples with crabapples or unusually hardy apples in order to produce hardier cultivars. For example, the Excelsior Experiment Station of the University of Minnesota has, since the 1930s, introduced a steady progression of important hardy apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by backyard orchardists, throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin. Its most important introductions have included Haralson (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), Wealthy, Honeygold, and Honeycrisp. The sweetness and texture of Honeycrisp have been so popular with consumers that Minnesota orchards have been cutting down their established, productive trees to make room for it, a heretofore unheard of practice.

Starting an orchard

Apple orchards are established by planting two to four year old trees. These small trees are usually purchased from a nursery where they are produced by grafting or budding. First, a rootstock is produced either as a seedling or cloned using tissue culture or layering. This is allowed to grow for a year. Then, a small section of branch called a scion is obtained from a mature apple tree of the desired cultivar. The upper stem and branches of the rootstock are cut away and replaced with the scion. In time, the two sections grow together and produce a healthy tree. Rootstocks affect the ultimate size of the tree. While many rootstocks are available to commercial grower, those sold to homeowners who want just a few trees are usually one of two cultivars: a standard seedling rootstock that gives a full-size tree, or a semi-dwarf rootstock that produces a somewhat smaller tree. Dwarf rootstocks are generally more susceptible to damage from wind and cold. Full dwarf trees are often supported of posts or trellises and planted in high density orchards which are much simpler to culture and greatly increase productivity per unit of land. Dwarf Dwarf Some trees are produced with a dwarfing "interstem" between a standard rootstock and the tree, resulting in two grafts. After the small tree is planted in the orchard, it must grow for 3-5 years (semi-dwarf) or 4-10 years (standard trees) before it will bear sizable amounts of fruit. Good training of limbs and careful nipping of buds growing in the wrong places, are extremely important during this time, to build a good scaffold that will later support a fruit load.

Location

Apples are relatively indifferent to soil conditions and will grow in a wide range of pH values and fertility levels. They do require some protection from the wind and should not be planted in low areas that are prone to late spring frosts. Apples do require good drainage, and heavy soils or flat land should be tilled to make certain that the root systems are never in saturated soil.

Pollination

Apples are self-incompatible and must be cross-pollinated to develop fruit. Pollination management is an important component of apple culture. Before planting, it is important to arrange for pollenizers, cultivars of apple or crab apple that provide plentiful, viable and compatible pollen. Orchard blocks may alternate rows of compatible cultivars, or may have periodic crab apple trees, or grafted-on limbs of crab apple. Some cultivars produce very little pollen, or the pollen is sterile, so these are not good pollenizers. Quality nurseries have pollenizer compatibility lists. Growers with old orchard blocks of single cultivars sometimes provide bouquets of crab apple blossoms in drums or pails in the orchard for pollenizers. Home growers with a single tree, and no other cultivars in the neighborhood can do the same on a smaller scale. During the flowering each season, apple growers usually provide pollinators to carry the pollen. Honeybee hives are most commonly used, and arrangements may be made with a commercial beekeeper who supplies hives for a fee. Orchard mason bees are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Home growers may find these more acceptable in suburban locations because they do not sting. Some wild bees such as carpenter bees and other solitary bees may help. Bumble bee queens are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in enough quantity to be significant pollinators. Symptoms of inadequate pollination are small and misshapen apples, slowness to ripen, and low seed count. Well pollinated apples are the best quality, and will have 7 to 10 seeds. Apples having less than 3 seeds will usually not mature and will drop from the trees in the early summer. Inadequate pollination can result from either a lack of pollinators or pollenizers, or from poor pollinating weather at flowering time. It generally requires multiple bee visits to deliver sufficient grains of pollen to accomplish complete pollination. A common problem is a late frost that destroys the delicate outer structures of the flower. It is best to plant apples on a slope for air drainage, but not on a south facing slope (in the northern hemisphere) as this will encourage early flowering and increase susceptibility to frost. If the frost is not too severe, the tree can be wetted with water spray before the morning sun hits the flowers, and it may save them. Frost damage can be evaluated 24 hours after the frost. If the pistil has turned black, the flower is ruined and will not produce fruit. Growing apples near a body of water gives an advantage by slowing spring warm up, which retards flowering until frost is less likely. Areas of the USA, such as the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, the southern shore of Lake Ontario, and around some smaller lakes, where this cooling effect of water, combined with good, well-drained soils, has made apple growing concentrations possible in these areas. Home growers may not have a body of water to help, but can utilize north slopes or other geographical features to retard spring flowering. Apples (or any fruit) planted on a south facing slope in the northern hemisphere (or north facing in the southern hemisphere), will flower early and be particularly vulnerable to spring frost.

Thinning

Apples are prone to biennial bearing. If the fruit is not thinned when the tree carries a large crop, it may produce very little flower the following year. Good thinning helps even out the cycle, so that a reasonable crop can be grown every year.

Pests and diseases

The trees are susceptible to a number of fungal and bacterial diseases and insect pests. Nearly all commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. A trend in orchard management is the use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), which reduces needless spraying when pests are not present, or more likely, are being controlled by natural predators. Spraying for insect pests must never be done during flowering because it kills pollinators. Nor should bee-attractive plants be allowed to establish in the orchard floor if insecticides are used. White clover is a component of many grass seed mixes, and many bees are poisoned by insecticides while visiting the flowers on the orchard floor. Among the most serious disease problems are fireblight, a bacterial disease; and Gymnosporangium rust, apple scab, and black spot, three fungal diseases. The plum curculio is the most serious insect pest. Others include Apple maggot and codling moth. For other Lepidoptera larvae which feed on apple trees, see List of Lepidoptera which feed on Malus. Apples are difficult to grow organically, though a few orchards have done so with commercial success, using disease-resistant cultivars and the very best cultural controls. The latest tool in the organic repertoire is to spray a light coating of kaolin clay, which forms a physical barrier to some pests, and also helps prevent apple sun scald.

Harvest

Mature trees typically bear 100-200 kg (5-10 bushels) of apples each year. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. A few cultivars, left unpruned, will grow to be extremely large, causing them to bear a great deal of fruit that is difficult to harvest. Dwarf trees will bear about 50-100 kg (3-5 bushels) of fruit per year. Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock.

Commerce and uses

bushel 45 million metric tons of apples were grown worldwide in 2002, with a value of about 10 billion USD. China produced almost half of this total. Argentina is the second leading producer, with more than 15% o fthe world production. The United States is the third leading producer, accounting for 7.5% of world production. Turkey is also a leading producer. France, Italy, South Africa and Chile are among the leading apple exporters. In the United States, more than 60% of all the apples sold commercially are grown in Washington state. Imported apples from New Zealand and other more temperate areas are competing with US production and increasing each year. Apples can be canned, juiced, and optionally fermented to produce apple juice, cider, vinegar, and pectin. Distilled apple cider produces the spirits applejack and Calvados. Apple wine can also be made. They make a popular lunchbox fruit as well. Apples are an important ingredient in many winter desserts, for example apple pie, apple crumble, apple crisp and apple cake. They are often eaten baked or stewed, and they can also be dried and eaten or re-consitituted (soaked in water, alcohol or some other liquid) for later use. Puréed apples are generally known as apple sauce. Apples are also made into apple butter and apple jelly. They are also used cooked in meat dishes. In the UK, a toffee apple is a traditional confection made by coating an apple in hot toffee and allowing it to cool. Similar treats in the US are candy apples (coated in a hard shell of crystallized sugar syrup), and caramel apples, coated with cooled caramel. Apples are eaten with honey at the Jewish New Year of Rosh Hashanah to symbolize a sweet new year.

Health benefits

Apples have long been considered healthy, as indicated by the proverb an apple a day keeps the doctor away. Research suggests that apples may reduce the risk of colon cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer. They may also help with heart disease, weight loss and controlling cholesterol. A group of chemicals in apples could protect the brain from the type of damage that triggers such neurodegenerative diseases as Alzheimer's and Parkinsonism. Chang Y. "Cy" Lee of Cornell University found that the apple phenolics, which are naturally occurring antioxidants found in fresh apples, can protect nerve cells from neurotoxicity induced by oxidative stress. The researchers used red delicious apples grown in New York state to provide the extracts to study the effects of phytochemicals. Lee said that all apples are high in the critical phytonutrients and that the amount of phenolic compounds in the apple flesh and in the skin vary from year to year, season to season and from growing region to growing region (November/December 2004 issue of the Journal of Food Science). Apples are historically known for producing "apple milk". A derivative of apple curd, apple milk is widely used throughout Tibet.

Cultural aspects

;Apples as symbols antioxidants Apples appear in many religious traditions, often as a mystical and forbidden fruit. One of the Greek hero Heracles' Twelve Labours was to travel to the Garden of the Hesperides and pick the golden apples off the Tree of Life growing at its center. In Norse mythology, Iðunn was the keeper of the 'apples of immortality' which kept the Gods young. The 'fruit-bearing tree' referred to by Tacitus in his description of Norse runic divination may have been the apple, or the rowan. This tradition is also reflected in the book of Genesis. Though the forbidden fruit in that account is not identified, popular European Christian tradition has held that it was an apple that Eve incited Adam to share with her. The influence of the antiquity was still strong, and the pagan symbology was absorbed into the new religion. This tradition was reflected in artistic renderings of the fall from Eden. The larynx in the human throat has been called Adam's apple because of a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in the throat of Adam. Celtic mythology includes a story about Conle who receives an apple which feeds him for a year but also makes him irresistibly desire fairyland. fairy.]] Another reason for the adoption of the apple as Christian symbol is that in Latin, the words for "apple" and for "evil" are identical (malum). It is often used to symbolize the fall into sin, or sin itself. When Christ is portrayed holding an apple, he represents the Second Adam who brings life. When held in Adam's hand, the apple symbolizes sin. This also reflects the evolution of the symbol in religion. In the Old Testament the apple was significant of the fall of man; in the New Testament it is an emblem of the redemption from that fall, and as such is also represented in pictures of the Madonna and Infant Jesus. Another Greek mythological figure, Paris, had to give a golden apple inscribed Kallisti "To the most beautiful one", (which had come from the goddess of discord, Eris) to the most beautiful goddess, thus indirectly causing the Trojan War. Atalanta, also of Greek mythology, was distracted during a race by three golden apples thrown for that purpose by a suitor, Hippomenes. In ancient Greece, throwing an apple at a person's bed was an invitation for sexual intercourse. Another instance in Roman and Greek mythology is the story of the Pleiades. At times artists would co-opt the apple, as well as other religious symbology, whether for ironic effect or as a stock element of symbolic vocabulary. Thus, secular art as well made use of the apple as symbol of love and sexuality. It is often an attribute associated with Venus who is shown holding it. The ancient Kazakh city of Almaty, 'Father of Apples' (Turkic language alma, apple, + ata, father), owes its name to the forests of wild apples (Malus sieversii) found naturally in the area. The apple blossom is the state flower of Arkansas and Michigan. Michigan The name of the Russian party Yabloko means "apple". Its logo represents an apple in the constructivist style. ;Traditions Swiss folklore holds that William Tell courageously shot an apple from his son's head with his crossbow, defying a tyrannical ruler and bringing freedom to his people. Irish folklore claims that if an apple is peeled into one continuous ribbon and thrown behind a woman's shoulder, it will land in the shape of the future husband's initials. Danish folklore says that apples wither around adulterers. In some places, dunking for apples is a traditional Halloween activity. Apples are said to increase a woman's chances of conception as well as remove birthmarks when rubbed on the skin. In the United States, Denmark and Sweden, an apple (polished) is a traditional gift for a teacher. This stemmed from the fact that teachers during the 16th to 18th centuries were poorly paid, so parents would compensate the teacher by providing food. As apples were a very common crop, teachers would often be given baskets of apples by students. As wages increased, the quantity of apples was toned down to a single fruit.

See also


- Nutritional information about the apple
- Fruit tree propagation
- Fruit tree pollination
- Fruit tree forms
- Cooking apple
- Pruning fruit trees

External links and references


- [http://www.nutritiondata.com/foods-apple009000000000000000000.html Complete nutritional info.]
- [http://www.allaboutapples.com/varieties/ Over 700 apple variety listings] from AllAboutApples.com
- Wild apples in Kazakhstan: [http://www.ars.usda.gov/Aboutus/docs.htm?docid=6310 1995] and [http://www.ars.usda.gov/Aboutus/docs.htm?docid=6311 1996] expeditions
- [http://www.webvalley.co.uk/brogdale/collectionapples.php Over 2000 apples] in the UK's National Fruit Collections
- [http://www.usapple.org/consumers/appleguide/guide.shtml U.S Apple Association Guide] with some years and places of cultivar origins
- [http://www.ifr.bbsrc.ac.uk/public/FoodInfoSheets/applefacts.html Apple Facts] from the UK's Institute of Food Research
- [http://www.ba.ars.usda.gov/hb66/027apple.pdf An article about storing apples and the effects. Good for those interested in shipping apples.] from the Agricultural Research Service
- [http://www.orangepippin.com Apple flavours and descriptions] from OrangePippin.com Category:Agriculture ja:リンゴ simple:Apple

High fructose corn syrup

Corn syrup, known as glucose syrup outside the United States, is a syrup made from corn starch and composed mainly of glucose. A series of three enzymatic reactions is used to convert the corn starch to corn syrup. It is used to sweeten soft drinks, juices, ice cream, whole wheat bread, and many other mass-produced foods. Its liquid form keeps foods moist and prevents them from quickly spoiling. In many areas, it is less expensive than table sugar (sucrose) due to agricultural policy; for example, the United States subsidizes corn syrup production while taxing sugar imports.

High-fructose corn syrup

High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a form of corn syrup modified to increase the proportion of fructose. Ordinary corn syrup is treated with the enzyme glucose isomerase which converts glucose to fructose. This process, developed by Japanese researchers in the 1970s, can increase the fructose content of corn syrup to 42%. Because fructose is much sweeter than glucose, the overall sweetness of the syrup is increased and it becomes a more useful substitute in food processing for sugar or invert sugar syrups, also known as trimoline. Fructose is also more desirable than glucose because of its increased solubility at low temperatures. Through further processing, the fructose content can be increased to 55%, yielding a product that has the same sweetness as sucrose, or higher. Common commercial grades of high fructose corn syrup include fructose contents of 42%, 55% (equivalent to caster sugar), or 90%.

Comparison to other sugars

Sucrose (table sugar) is a disaccharide composed of one unit each of fructose and glucose linked together. Sucrose is broken down during digestion into fructose and glucose through hydrolysis. Sucrose is 50% fructose, so HFCS may have a higher or lower fructose content than sucrose, with a corresponding change in sweetness. Honey is another product that is a mixture of different types of sugars, water, and small amounts of other compounds. Honey typically has a fructose/glucose ratio similar to HFCS, as well as containing some sucrose and other sugars.

Health

High fructose corn syrup is often cited by some nutritionists as one of the leading causes of obesity and is linked to diabetes.[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A8003-2003Mar10?language=printer] The average American consumed 62.6 pounds of high fructose corn syrup in 2001, most of which came from soft drinks. Since HFCS is used as a substitute for other sugars (particularly sucrose) in processed foods, it is not clear whether it is the chemical differences between sugars or a general increase in consumption of sugars of all types that might be linked with obesity. Some nutritionists and natural food advocates believe that consumption of high fructose corn syrup should be avoided due to its possible links with obesity and diabetes. Also cited as reasons to avoid HFCS are that it is highly refined, that it might be produced from genetically modified corn, that various molds found on corn might leave harmful byproducts in the final product, or that corn products in general should be avoided. [http://www.bodyfueling.com/Q&A.html], [http://www.mercola.com/2004/apr/10/corn_fat.htm] Other nutritionists say that HFCS is no more or less harmful than other forms of sugar and that all sugars should be consumed sparingly. It may be the case that confusion has arisen between the effects of consuming pure fructose as compared to pure glucose, versus the effects of consuming mixtures of the two sugars from different sources.

External links


- [http://www.corn.org/web/processo.htm How corn is turned into corn syrup.]
- [http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/548HFsyrup.html The chemistry of corn syrup]
- [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/040910.html Is the increased use of high-fructose corn syrup responsible for the rise in obesity?] (from The Straight Dope)
- [http://www.owen.org/musings/sugar.php Why you should avoid refined sugars] Category:Sweeteners

Cinnamon

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum, synonym C. zeylanicum) is a small evergreen tree 10-15 m tall, belonging to the family Lauraceae, native to Sri Lanka and Southern India. The bark is widely used as a spice.

Botanical details

The leaves are ovate-oblong in shape, 7-18 cm long. The flowers, which are arranged in panicles, have a greenish colour and a rather disagreeable odour. The fruit is a purple 1 cm berry containing a single seed. Cinnamon is harvested by growing the tree for two years and then coppicing it. The next year a dozen or so shoots will form from the roots. These shoots are then stripped of their bark and left to dry. Only the thin (0.5 mm) inner bark is used; the outer woody portion is removed, leaving metre long cinnamon strips which curl into rolls ("quills") on drying; each dried quill comprises strips from numerous shoots packed together. These quills are then cut to 5-10 cm long pieces for sale. The best cinnamon comes from Sri Lanka, but the tree is also grown commercially at Tellicherry in Java, Sumatra, the West Indies, Brazil, Vietnam, Madagascar, and Egypt. Sri Lanka cinnamon of fine quality is a very thin smooth bark, with a light-yellowish brown colour, a highly fragrant odour, and a peculiarly sweet, warm and pleasing aromatic taste. Its flavour is due to an aromatic oil which it contains to the extent of from 0.5 to 1%. This essential oil is prepared by roughly pounding the bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then quickly distilling the whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the characteristic odour of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. The pungent taste and scent come from cinnamic aldehyde or cinnamaldehyde and, by the absorption of oxygen as it ages, it darkens in colour and develops resinous compounds. Chemical components of the essential oil include eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, beta-caryophyllene, linalool and methyl chavicol.

Uses

Cinnamon bark is widely used as a spice. It is principally employed in cookery as a condiment and flavouring material, being largely used in the preparation of some kinds of desserts, chocolate and spicy candies and liqueurs. In the Middle East, it is often used in savory dishes of chicken and lamb. In America, cinnamon and sugar are often used to flavor cereals and fruits, especially apples. It can also be used in pickling. In medicine it acts like other volatile oils and once had a reputation as a "cure" for colds. It has also been used to treat diarrhea and other problems of the digestive system [http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/cinnamomum.html]. Cinnamon is high in antioxidant activity [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16190627&query_hl=12] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10077878&dopt=Abstract]. The essential oil of cinnamon also has antimicrobial properties [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16104824&query_hl=16]. This property may allow cinnamon to extend the shelf life of foods. In the media, "cinnamon" has been reported to have remarkable pharmacological effects in the treatment of type II diabetes. However, the plant material used in the study [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14633804&query_hl=3] was actually Cassia, as opposed to true cinnamon. The confusion in nomenclature is described below. Please refer to Cassia's health issues for more information about its health benefits.

Cinnamon and cassia

Cassia's health issues The name cinnamon is correctly used to refer to Ceylon Cinnamon, also known as "true cinnamon" (from the botanical name C. verum). However, the related species Cassia (Cinnamomum aromaticum) is sometimes sold labeled as cinnamon, distinguished from true cinnamon as "Indonesian cinnamon" or "Bastard cinnamon". Ceylon cinnamon, using only the thin inner bark, has a finer, less dense and more crumbly texture, and is considered to be a stronger and more pungent spice. Cassia is generally a medium to dark reddish brown, and as the whole bark is used, is thicker (2-3 mm thick) and hard and woody in texture. The two barks when whole are easily distinguished, and their microscopic characteristics are also quite distinct. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine (a test for starch), little effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality, but when cassia is present a deep-blue tint is produced, the intensity of the coloration depending on the proportion of cassia.

History

Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity, and it was so highly prized among ancient nations that it was regarded as a gift fit for monarchs and other great potentates. It was imported to Egypt from China as early as 2000 BC, and is mentioned in Exodus 30:23, where Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon (Hebrew קִנָּמוֹן, qinnāmôn) and cassia, and in Proverbs 7:17-18, where the lover's bed is perfumed with myrrh, aloe and cinnamon. It is also alluded to by Herodotus and other classical writers. It was commonly used on funeral pyres in Rome, and the Emperor Nero is said to have burned a year's supply of cinnamon at the funeral for his wife Poppaea Sabina, in 65 AD. In the Middle Ages, the source of cinnamon was a mystery to the western world. Arab traders brought the spice via overland trade routes to Alexandria in Egypt, where it was bought by Venetian traders from Italy who held a monopoly on the spice trade in Europe. The disruption of this trade by the rise of other Mediterranean powers such as the Mameluk Dynasties and the Ottoman Empire was one of many factors which led Europeans to search more widely for other routes to Asia. Portuguese traders finally discovered Ceylon (Sri Lanka) at the end of the fifteenth century, and restructured the traditional production of cinnamon by the salagama caste. The Portuguese established a fort on the island in 1518, and brutally protected their own monopoly for over a hundred years. Dutch traders finally dislodged the Portuguese by allying with the inland Ceylon kingdom of Kandy. They established a trading post in 1638, took control of the factories by 1640, and expelled all remaining Portuguese by 1658. "The shores of the island are full of it", a Dutch captain reported, "and it is the best in all the Orient: when one is downwind of the island, one can still smell cinnamon eight leagues out to sea" (Braudel 1984, p. 215). The Dutch East India Company continued to overhaul the methods of harvesting in the wild, and eventually began to cultivate their own trees. The English dislodged the Dutch in 1796, even as the importance of the monopoly of Ceylon declined. Cultivation of the cinnamon tree spread to other areas, the more common cassia bark became more acceptable to consumers, and coffee, tea, sugar and chocolate began to outstrip the popularity of traditional spices.

References


-
- Braudel, Fernand. The Perspective of the World, Vol III of Civilization and Capitalism. 1984.
- Corn, Charles. The Scents of Eden: A Narrative of the Spice Trade, Kodansha International, New York, 1998.
- Cinnamon Extracts Boost Insulin Sensitivity in Agricultural Research magazine, July 2000. Category:Laurales Category:Spices Category:Hebrew words Category:Sri Lanka ja:シナモン

Baby

The word infant derives from the Latin in-fans, meaning unable to speak. It is commonly used as a slightly more formal word for baby (the youngest category of child). The term infant is also used as formal/legal term for minor; that is, a child in general. A newborn infant is known as a neonate (neonatal, neonatus) after the final stage of gestation. Newborn infants are born with their skin coated with a white substance known as vernix caseosa, which is hypothesized to act as an antibacterial barrier. Newborns look physically different from prototypical older infants. They typically suffered minor trauma during birth resulting in a misshapen skull (compressed and pointed), puffy eyes, various discharges, blotchy and wrinkled skin. The Apgar score is a measure of a newborn's health. Infant mortality is the death of infants in the first year of life. Infant mortality can be subdivided into neonatal death, referring to deaths in the first 27 days of life, and post-neonatal death, referring to deaths after 28 days of life. Major causes of infant mortality include dehydration, infection, congenital malformation, and SIDS. This epidemiological indicator is recognised as a very important measure of the level of healthcare in a country because it is directly linked with the health status of infants, children, and pregnant women as well as access to medical care, socio-economic conditions, and public health practices. Feeding is done by breastfeeding or with special industrial milk, "infant formula". As infants age, and their appetites grow, many parents choose from a variety of baby foods to feed the child. Infants have a sucking instinct allowing them to extract the milk from the nipples of the breasts or the nipple of the baby bottle. If the mother is unable to breast feed, or does not want to, infant formula is used in Western countries. Sometimes a wet nurse is hired to feed the infant. wet nurse Breastfeeding provides infants with many natural immune substances and isolates the infant from most bacteria or other contaminations in the local water supply. Infant formula does not provide these immune substances and in places with poor quality water supply, subjects the infant to an increased risk of disease. Infants are incontinent, therefore diapers are generally used in industrialized countries, while methods similar to elimination communication[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/eliminationcommunication/] are common in third world countries. These techniques assert babies can control their bodily functions at the age of six months and they are aware when they are urinating at even earlier age. Babies can learn to signal to the parents when it is time to urinate or defecate by turning or making some noises. Parents have to pay attention to the baby's action so they can learn the signals. third world Babies cannot walk, although more mature infants may crawl; baby transport may be by perambulator (stroller or buggy) or on the back or in front of an adult in a special bag, cloth or cradle board. Infants cry as a form of basic instinctive communication to their parents when in need of feeding or when in discomfort. As is the case with most other young children, infants are usually treated as special persons. Their social presence is different from that of adults, and they may be the focus of attention. Fees for transportation and entrance fees at locations such as amusement parks or museums are often waived.

See also


- Baby shower
- Baby care
- Birth weight
- Circumcision
- Cord blood
- Cord blood banking
- Elimination communication
- Fraternal bond
- Infanticide
- Jaundice
- Infants in history
- Maternal bond
- Paternal bond
- Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

External links


- [http://dmoz.org/Home/Family/Babies/ Baby Links] Parenting and Information sites from the Open Directory Project
- [http://www.pregnancybirthandbaby.co.uk Pregnancy, birth and baby] Parenting site including the Parenting wiki
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2091.html CIA FactBook] — Infant mortality rates in different countries and other health indicators
- [http://www.babymilkaction.org Baby Milk Action] — "aims to save lives and to end the avoidable suffering caused by inappropriate infant feeding"
- [http://www.who.int/whr/2005/en/ The World Health Report 2005 – Make Every Mother and Child]
- [http://www.babycentre.co.uk BabyCentre] — "A fantastic resource for parents from preconception to baby, to toddler" Category:Infancy simple:Baby

Diarrhea

Diarrhea (AmE) or diarrhoea (CwE) is a condition in which the sufferer has frequent and watery, chunky, or loose bowel movements (from the ancient Greek word διαρροή = leakage; lit. "to run through"). In the Third World, diarrhea is the most common cause of death among infants, killing more than 1.5 million per year.

Causes

This condition can be a symptom of injury, disease or foodborne illness and is usually accompanied by abdominal pain, and often nausea and vomiting. There are other conditions which involve some but not all of the symptoms of diarrhea, and so the formal medical definition of diarrhea involves defecation of more than 200 grams per day (though formal weighing of stools to determine a diagnosis is never actually carried out). It occurs when insufficient fluid is absorbed by the colon. As part of the digestion process, or due to fluid intake, food is mixed with large amounts of water. Thus, digested food is essentially liquid prior to reaching the colon. The colon absorbs water, leaving the remaining material as a semisolid stool. If the colon is damaged or inflamed, however, absorption is inhibited, and watery stools result. Diarrhea is most commonly caused by myriad viral infections but is also often the result of bacterial toxins. In sanitary living conditions and with ample food and water available, an otherwise healthy patient typically recovers from the common viral infections in a few days and at most a week. However, for ill or malnourished individuals diarrhea can lead to severe dehydration and can become life-threatening without treatment. It can also be a symptom of more serious diseases, such as dysentery, cholera, or botulism and can also be indicative of a chronic syndrome such as Crohn's disease. Though appendicitis patients don't generally have diarrhea, it is a common symptom of a ruptured appendix. It is also an effect of severe radiation sickness. It can also be caused by excessive alcohol consumption, especially in someone who doesn't eat enough food. Symptomatic treatment for diarrhea involves the patient consuming adequate amounts of water to replace that lost, preferably mixed with electrolytes to provide essential salts and some amount of nutrients. For many people, further treatment and formal medical advice is unnecessary. The following types of diarrhea generally indicate medical supervision is desirable:
- Diarrhea in infants.
- Moderate or severe diarrhea in young children.
- Diarrhea associated with blood.
- Diarrhea that continues for more than 2 weeks.
- Diarrhea that is associated with more general illness such as non-cramping abdominal pain, fever, weight loss, etc.
- Diarrhea in travelers (more likely to have exotic infections such as parasites)
- Diarrhea in food handlers (potential to infect others)
- Diarrhea in institutions (Hospitals, child care, mental health institutes, geriatric and convalescent homes etc). Since most people will ignore very minor diarrhea, a patient who actually presents to a doctor is likely to have diarrhea that is more severe than usual.

Mechanism

To evacuate the contents of the lower digestive tract, the fluidity of the contents of the small and large intestines is increased. Active transport of Na+ back into the gut intiates a reverse sodium transport. This causes both Cl- and HCO3 to follow passively, as well as water. Now in the intestines, the water dilutes toxins as well as triggers contractions of the intestine due to increase in intestinal distension. These contractions push the contents of the lower GI tract towards and out of the anal canal. Medications such as loperamide are designed to prevent such contractions in response to the distension, and should not be used to prevent diarrhea. Such inhibition actually prolongs the infection or irritation, and can cause a worsening over time because the evacuation of the bowel contents has been delayed.

Acute diarrhea

This may be defined as diarrhea that lasts less than 2 weeks, and is also called gastroenteritis. This can nearly always be presumed to be infective, although only in a minority of cases is this formally proven. It is often reasonable to reassure a patient, ensure adequate fluid intake, and wait and see. In more severe cases, or where it is important to find the cause of the illness, stool cultures are instituted. The most common organisms found are Campylobacter (an organism of animal origin), salmonella (also often of animal origin), Cryptosporidiosis (animal origin), Giardia Lamblia (lives in drinking water). Shigella (dysentery) is less common, and usually human in origin. Cholera is rare in Western countries. It is more common in travelers and is usually related to contaminated water (its ultimate source is probably sea water). Escherichia coli is probably a very common cause of diarrhea, especially in travelers, but it can be difficult to detect using current technology. The types of E. coli vary from area to area and country to country. Viruses, particularly rotavirus, are common in children. (Viral diarrhea is probably over-diagnosed by non-doctors). The Norwalk virus is rare. Toxins and food poisoning can cause diarrhea. These include staphylococcal toxin (often milk products due to an infected wound in workers), and Bacillus cereus (eg rice in Chinese takeaways). Often "food poisoning" is really salmonella infection. Parasites and worms sometime cause diarrhea but often present with weight loss, irritability, rashes or anal itching. The most common is pinworm (mostly of nuisance value rather than a severe medical illness). Other worms, such as hookworm, ascaria, and tapeworm are more medically significant and may cause weight loss, anemia, general unwellness and allergy problems. Amoebic dysentery due to Entamoeba histolytica is an important cause of bloody diarrhea in travelers and also sometimes in western countries which requires appropriate and complete medical treatment.

Chronic diarrhea

Infective diarrhea

It is not uncommon for diarrhea to persist. Diarrhea due to some organisms may persist for years without significant long term illness. More commonly a diarrhea will slowly ameliorate but the patient becomes a carrier (harbors the infection without illness). This is often an indication for treatment, especially in food workers or institution workers. Parasites (worms and amoeba) should always be treated. Salmonella is the most common persistent bacterial organism in humans.

Malabsorption

These tend to be more severe medical illnesses. Malabsorption is the inability to absorb food, mostly in the small bowel but also due to the pancreas. Causes include celiac disease (intolerance to gluten, a wheat product), lactose intolerance (Intolerance to milk sugar, common in non-Europeans), fructose malabsorption, Pernicious anemia (impaired bowel function due to the inability to absorb vitamin B12), loss of pancreatic secretions (may be due to cystic fibrosis or pancreatitis), short bowel syndrome (surgically removed bowel), radiation fibrosis (usually following cancer treatment), other drugs such as chemotherapy, and of course, diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome.

Inflammatory bowel disease

There are of unknown origin but are likely to be abnormal immune responses to infection. There is some overlap but the two types are ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease:
- Ulcerative colitis is marked by chronic bloody diarrhea and inflammation mostly affects the distal colon near the rectum.
- Crohn's disease typically affects fairly well demarcated segments of bowel in the colon and often affects the end of the small bowel.

Other important causes


- Ischaemic bowel disease. This usually affects older people and can be due to blocked arteries.
- Bowel cancer: Some (but NOT all) bowel cancers may have associated diarrhea. (Cancer of the large colon is most common)
- Hormone-secreting tumors: some hormones (e.g. serotonin) can cause diarrhea if excreted to excess (usually from a tumor).
- Bile salt diarrhea: excess bile salt entering the colon rather then being absorbed at the end of the small intestine can cause diarrhea, typically shortly after eating. Bile salt diarrhea is a possible side-effect of gallbladder removal. It is usually treated with cholestyramine, a bile acid sequestrant.

Treatment of diarrhea

#Keep hydrated. This is the most appropriate treatment in most cases of minor diarrhea. #Try eating more but smaller portions. Eat regularly. Don't eat or drink too quickly. #Intravenous fluids or a "drip": Sometimes, especially in children, dehydration can be life-theatening and intravenous fluid may be required. #Oral rehydration therapy: Taking a sugar/salt solution, which can be absorbed by the body. #Opioids and their analogs should not be used for infectious diarrhea as they are said to prolong the illness and may increase the risk of a carrier state. Opioids are the most effective antidiarrheals available. Their principal method of action is to inhibit peristalsis. Loperamide, also known as Imodium, is the most commonly used antidiarrheal. Loperamide is chemically related to the drug meperidine or Demerol, but does not cross the blood-brain barrier and does not appear to induce tolerance or dependence. Other opioids used to control diarrhea (in increasing order of strength) are: Lomotil (diphenoxylate with atropine); Lonox (difenoxin with atropine); codeine; opium tincture (laudanum); and morphine. The most potent opioids are generally reserved for chronic diarrhea (e.g., from complications of AIDS). #Antibiotics: antibiotics may be required if a bacterial cause is suspected and the patient is medically ill. They are sometimes also indicated for workers with carrier states in order to clear up an infection so that the person can resume work. Parasite-related diarrhea (e.g. giardiasis) require appropriate antibiotics. Antibiotics are not routinely used, as the cause is rarely bacterial and antibiotics may further upset intestinal flora and worsen rather than improve the diarrhea. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis is often caused by antibiotic use. #Dietary manipulation: especially avoid wheat products with celiac disease. #Hygiene and isolation: Hygiene is important in limiting spread of the disease. #It is claimed that some fruit, such as bananas, mangoes, papaya and pineapple may have positive effects on this condition. Bananas have the merits of being easily obtainable, and they are unlikely to have any other significant unwanted side effects. Bananas are thought to be "binding," as is mucilage, which you can obtain in capsule form. Mucilage can also be used as cereal for babies, as it is easily digested. The high acid content of pineapple may make this food a bad choice for people suffering from chronic diarrhea.

See also


- Constipation

External links


- [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11100619&dopt=Abstract Reducing deaths from diarrhoea through oral rehydration therapy.] 1: Bull. World Health Organ. 2000;78(10):1246-55.
- [http://rehydrate.org/diarrhoea/index.html Rehydration Project] Category:Gastroenterology Category:Symptoms ja:下痢 simple:Diarrhea

Category:Apple products

Category:Apples

Comunità missionaria di Villaregia

La Comunità missionaria di Villaregia è una comunità missionaria della Chiesa Cattolica sorta nel 1981 nella Diocesi di Chioggia (VE), fondata da padre Luigi Prandin, missionario saveriano, e Maria Luigia Corona, laica consacrata. Scopo principale della Comunità è il servizio alla Missione Universale della Chiesa cattolica.

Membri effettivi

La Comunità è composta da persone di diversi stati di vita, uniti dalla stessa spiritualità. Ruolo centrale è svolto dai membri effettivi, cioè persone unite dalla comune vocazione alla "Comunità per la Missione", che condividono i beni materiali e ed il comune ministero apostolico. Essi si distinguono in quattro nuclei di persone:
- Missionari consacrati
- Missionarie consacrate
- Consacrati nel mondo
- Sposi missionari Costoro si consacrano a Dio, con i voti di povertà, castità, obbedienza, per i missionari e le missionarie e, nell'impegno a vivere il matrimonio nella povertà e nell'obbedienza, per le coppie di sposi. Un quarto voto di comunità per la missione ad gentes unisce tutti i membri effettivi.

I missionari e le missionarie consacrati

La vita e l'azione della Comunità Missionaria si radica nella unione con la Trinità e nella comunione con i fratelli. I missionari e le missionarie consacrati si dividono nelle Fraternità di Vita Contemplativa e nelle Fraternità di Misericordia. Esse si dedicano, rispettivamente, alla vita di preghiera e alla evangelizzazione tra i più poveri. I consacrati di vita contemplativa si dedicano, principalmente, alla preghiera, al silenzio ed al lavoro quotidiano. I missionari della Fraternità di Misericordia, invece, si impegnano all'evangelizzazione, vivendo a stretto contatto con i poveri.

Consacrati nel mondo

I consacrati nel mondo sono missionari che emettono il voto di castità, ma restando inseriti nel loro ambiente e mantenendo la propria attività lavorativa. Hanno il compito di vivere, negli ambienti di vita e di lavoro, l'impegno missionario. Ciò nonostante spesso di dedicano ad attività di missione in terre staniere.

Sposi missionari

Gli sposi missionari, nel rispetto dei ritmi e degli elementi fondamentali per la famiglia, partecipano degli impegni della Comunità. Si impegnano ad essere, come i consacrati nel mondo, testimoni nella società e nei luoghi di vita cuotidiana.

Membri aggregati

La Comunità Missionaria di Villaregia è composta, inoltre, dai membri aggregati. Sono persone che, senza legarsi alla Comunità con vincolo di voto, partecipano al suo carisma e collaborano al suo stesso fine. Anche i membri aggregati si distinguono in quattro gruppi:
- Volontari
- Aderenti ai Gruppi GIM (Gruppi d'Impegno Missionario)
- Animatori Missionari
- Amici della Missione I membri aggregati si distinguono tra loro in base alla disponibilità di tempo e di energie che dedicano all'attività missionaria ed ai luoghi in cui operano.

Sedi

La comunità, nata in Italia, è oggi presente anche in Brasile, Messico, Perù, Porto Rico, Costa d'Avorio.

Collegamenti esterni

[http://www.cmv.it Sito ufficiale della Comunità] Categoria:Ordini religiosi cattolici

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